Shel Kimen
The emergence of capitalism is the
result of complex and interrelated circumstance. It was formed by changes in
power structures, technology, and philosophical perspectives, all of which
inform each other in its development. Changes in power relationships inform how
technology develops. Technology further changes power relationships. These
changes manifest (or result from) new philosophical approaches to
understanding, allowing room for further technological innovation and
perceptions of power. The goal of this paper is not to isolate any specific
agent that may have sparked the capitalist system, but rather to explore how
one specific technological advancement, the printing press and mass production
of books, factored into and contributed significantly to the development of
capitalism through its relationship to power, technology, and philosophy.
Oral Culture
Imagine a world with no written
words. Imagine using only stories and symbols to express ideas, concepts, and
information. There are several key features of oral culture as documented by
Walter Ong in his Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word.
First, Orality is "evanescent,"[1]
The spoken word exists only in the moment of its being spoken. Orality is
"aggregative rather than analytic"[2].
Orality is non-hierarchical. Things happen one after another, but categories of
information do not exist as they do in print. Orality is "close to the
human life world."[3]
People in oral cultures live close to their environment and with each other and
tend not to think in abstract ways about their world and their lives. Learning
is hands-on or by apprenticeship as there are no manuals to study. Elders are
respected members of society for the knowledge they hold. Orality is
"empathetic and participatory "[4]
Experience is subjective and communal and both speaker and listeners are active
participants in conversation. Even in one-way communication, with an orator and
an audience, the orator is to at least some degree in touch with how well the
audience understands his message, and if he's good, he will adapt that message
as he goes to engage the audience. Orality is "homeostatic"[5]
An oral culture is constantly adjusting, maintaining equilibrium or
homeostasis, though it may take some time, and the process is mostly
unconscious.
In contrast, written culture is permanent, analytical and systematically distancing people from the world and each other. Plato was the first to speak against written culture in Phaedrus. Plato has Socrates say, "There is an old Egyptian tale of Theuth, the inventor of writing, showing his invention to the god Thamus, who told him that he would only spoil men's memories and take away their understandings. From this tale, of which young Athens will probably make fun, may be gathered the lesson that writing is inferior to speech. For it is like a picture, which can give no answer to a question, and has only a deceitful likeness of a living creature. It has no power of adaptation, but uses the same words for all. It is not a legitimate son of knowledge, but a bastard, and when an attack is made upon this bastard neither parent nor anyone else is there to defend it."[6] Writing to Plato is inhuman, alienating, stagnant, unresponsive, and weak (the written word can't defend itself). Nonetheless, writing became extremely popular.
Early writing was still different, very different, from printing and perceptions of early books were also different. Early books, or manuscripts, were considered works of art. In fact the Medicis said they would only ever have manuscripts in their collection, partly because of status and partly because of their artistic value. They were hand copied and often embellished with precious jewels and metals and bound in fine linens and cloths. The manuscripts of this time were also seen as sacred religious objects. The grueling labor involved in copying and decorating was considered an act of religious devotion to make the word of god manifest in the world. Not all manuscripts were bibles however. Secularization of manuscripts occurred in the 13th to 15th century and certain scholarly texts were available, however only for the elite. This is in part because of the rise of universities in Italy and also the return of the crusaders with texts from Byzantium. Unfortunately no two books were the same; there were no standards, and no fixed positions. Each manuscript was subject to the perspectives, opinions, and personal knowledge of facts and geography of the scribe, often resulting in errors. In this way manuscripts resemble oral culture; they told stories that changed over time depending on the narrator. Elizabeth Eisenstein calls this textual drift. "Scribal culture was so thin that heavy reliance was placed on oral transmission... producing a hybrid half-oral half literate culture that has no precise counterpart today"[7] Also interesting here is the nature of reading itself. Early manuscripts were meant to be read aloud, to both oneself and a group. Early scribes did not use punctuation or divide words, which made it necessary for men educated in words to read aloud for others, pronouncing syllables and dividing sentences and paragraphs as they went along. It wasn't until word division, in the late 12th to early 13th centuries, that reading became silent. At this time "text [divided] into chapters and sub-chapters, ...tables of chapter headings [appeared].... New forms of punctuation, such as colored paragraph marks, were introduced. Quotations were underlined in red, marginal notes were added, and diagrams were supplied. The resulting multi-structured apparatus...was visual and was meant for a reader, not a hearer."[8]
Not long
after the manuscripts evolution from an oral tradition to a visual one, an
invention appeared that created greater demand for books. Johann Gutenberg
invented movable type in 1452. Though it is probable that Gutenberg was not
actually the first to do this, some scholars argue it happened simultaneously
in Prague and Holland, he nonetheless gets credit for proliferating the
technology. At first there was great excitement about the invention. By 1470
printing presses were established in most western European countries and by
1500 in most cities. But as quickly as the industry rose, it fell, because of
poor distribution, marketing, and a low literacy rate. Concepts such as
advertising were not yet developed and trade was unorganized.
This
period also marks the rise of mercantilism. As we discussed in class, though
wages and standard of living rose from the late 1400's to the early 1500's, at
the decline of feudalism, they quickly fell again. Though economic power spread
from the feudal lords to a larger number of merchants, these merchants tended to
keep the capital for themselves instead of distributing it. Guilds broke down,
people lost jobs, and money could not flow (a necessary function for
capitalism). It wasn't until free wage labor increased, book production methods
improved, and the stronghold of the church broke down, resulting in a variety
of special interests in content that the printing press and large-scale
manufacturing and distribution of books occurred. This large-scale
manufacturing and distribution of books is both a product of emerging
capitalism and also a source for evolving capitalism.
The
merchant's rise to power is most directly a result of bargaining with the King
in the form of taxes. Paying taxes offered the merchants protection and a
certain autonomy from both the feudal lords and the church. As this was
happening Martin Luther and John Calvin published their ideas about religion
and the protestant philosophy. Luther published his 95 Theses and posted
them on the walls of public spaces. The theses empowered people, through the
use of vernacular language, to have a direct relationship with god, unmediated
by the pope and the chosen few allowed to learn Latin (the language of the
church). John Calvin, on the other hand, published at first mostly in images,
to account for low literacy rates. His widely distributed propaganda Passion of Christ and Anti-Christ,
featured images of contradictions within the Catholic Church. One image
contrasts Christ washing the feet of the disciples with the pope having his own
feet kissed by others. Another shows a crown of thorns prepared for Christ
contrasted with a crown of gold worn by the pope.[9]
In
addition to merchant taxes and the use of mass distributed pictures and
religious text in the vernacular, the growing values of the enlightenment,
values of science and reason loosened the stronghold of the church. The mass
production of these new values, as well as a revived interest in the classic
humanistic values of the Greeks and Romans, spawned the Italian renaissance and
aided the development of capitalism. The phrase "knowledge is power" so often
used in the information age of the Internet has it's roots in this period of
time.
Not only
were books used to spread new ideas of religion and classic humanist values,
but also ideas about democracy and nationalism, scientific discovery, collected
facts as in dictionaries and encyclopedias, and political propaganda. All these
new content categories of information, fueled and distributed via trade, helped
different sides and layers of capitalism to grow.
In 1492
Renaissance humanist, Marsilio Ficino wrote about the climate in Florence,
"If
we are to call any age golden, it is beyond doubt that age which brings forth
golden talents in different places. That such is true of this our age [no one]
will hardly doubt. For this century, like a golden age, has restored to light
the liberal arts, which were almost extinct: grammar, poetry, rhetoric,
painting, sculpture, architecture, music . . . and all this in Florence.... This
century appears to have perfected astronomy, in Florence it has recalled the
Platonic teaching from darkness into light . . . and in Germany . . . [there]
have been invented the instruments for printing books."[10]
In the
Renaissance, books published represented Italian humanism (Dante and Petrarch),
development in arts, (Vasari and Condivi), ideas on politics (Machiavelli and
Medici), tales of exploration (Polo and Mandeville) and concepts of
civilization (Castiglione and Mirandola). All of these books, many still in manuscript
form, appeared at the same time of Luther and Calvin's reformation texts.
Dante introduced concepts such as form, subject, and agent in his Divine Comedy, all things possible with books but not in oral history, and all of which enable the commodification of ideas via specialized categories. Vasari and Condivi contributed to the development of the art market, Vasari by publishing the first book of art history chronicling the lives and works of Italian painters and Condivi for writing the biography of Michelangelo. Both these writers glorified not just the concept of art as a valuable commodity, but praised its creators as genius individuals, creating social and later economic value for their work. This elevating of the individual contributed to the break down of the merchant class into a more egalitarian system of individual free wage labor workers, helping capitalism along the way.
Machiavelli
spread ideas on the best way to conquer lands and what to do with such
conquered lands. Whether he realized it or not, his preaching of domination,
that princes should not just conquer but rule the new lands in the same manner
he ruled his first lands, promotes a seamless flow for capital. Distant lands
under one set of rule make trade and the spread of ideas and capital easier. He
also contributes to notions of future speculation and uncertainty. In Chapter
XXI of The Prince, Machiavelli states "Never let any Government imagine
that it can choose perfectly safe courses; rather let it expect to have to take
very doubtful ones...."[11]
Here he evangelizes uncertainty and later describes great leaders as those who
can master uncertainty for personal advantage. Uncertainty and adaptability are
fundamental principals of capitalism.
Mandeville
creates a desire for travel by glamorizing the luxuries of far away lands. In
his Tale of Emperor John Preston he says the land is made of "many
diverse things and many precious stones, so great and so large, that men make
of them vessels, as platters, dishes, and cups"[12]
He also speaks of a highly calculated and organized government, with kings
appointed and ruling by term, not necessarily birth. "This Emperor Preston John
hath evermore seven kings with him to serve him, and they depart their service
by certain months. And with these kings serve always seventy-two dukes and
three hundred and sixty earls."[13]
Marco Polo also speaks of elected officials in his description of the Tartars
"they proceeded to elect for their king a man named Chingis-khan, one of
approved integrity, great wisdom, commanding eloquence, and eminent for his
valor"[14]
He also writes of knowledge distribution when he says Genghis Khan "adopted the
policy of taking along with him, into other provinces, the principal people, on
whom he bestowed allowances and gratuities."[15]
All of these ideas advance trade, the nation state, and a seamless flow of
capital and ideas.
Mirandola
talks of free will in his Oration on the Dignity of Man stating, "Let a
certain saving ambition invade our souls so that, impatient of mediocrity, we
pant after the highest things and (since, if we will, we can) bend all our
efforts to their attainment."[16]
Mirandola also speaks to the exact paradox in the development of capitalism,
that of a commodities culture which breeds greed for money over raw passion of
idea, but at the same time, because of passion for idea fuels innovation,
individualism, and pursuit of knowledge – things necessary for capitalism.
"Thus we
have reached the point, it is painful to recognize, where the only persons
accounted wise are those who can reduce the pursuit of wisdom to a profitable
traffic; and chaste Pallas, who dwells among men only by the generosity of the
gods, is rejected, hooted, whistled at in scorn, with no one to love or
befriend her unless, by prostituting herself, she is able to pay back into the
strongbox of her lover the ill-procured price of her deflowered virginity. I
address all these complaints, with the greatest regret and indignation, not
against the princes of our times, but against the philosophers who believe and
assert that philosophy should not be pursued because no monetary value or
reward is assigned it, unmindful that by this sign they disqualify themselves
as philosophers. Since their whole life is concentrated on gain and ambition,
they never embrace the knowledge of the truth for its own sake. This much will
I say for myself --- and on this point I do not blush for praising myself ---
that I have never philosophized save for the sake of philosophy, nor have I
ever desired or hoped to secure from my studies and my laborious researches any
profit or fruit save cultivation of mind and knowledge of the truth --- things
I esteem more and more with the passage of time."[17]
It is the
articulation of this paradox that for me underscores the most important feature
of capitalisms growth and sustainability. That which fights the system is
ultimately absorbed and commodified into the system, only to become an
institution taken down by the next generation, and so on. It's evident in the
rise of a merchant class, a rise necessary to set the wheels of capitalism in
motion, to free a working population from feudal lords that ultimately defeated
itself by centralizing power that it at first sought to decentralize. And in
more modern terms it's a lessonlearned by corporations such as IBM mocking
their old image as blue suits, an image once profitable, to create a new image,
on business casual and a fun flexible work life, an image even more profitable.
This paradox began in the 15th century as capitalism emerged and
forms its foundation. And examples of the growth of this image are only learned
through the proliferation of books and the printed word.
In the
early 16th century, Rabelais was one of the most widely read writers
of culture. His writings, and others by Cervantes and Shakespeare, allowed
society to reflect on its own achievements and misgivings, making room for
cultural innovations. Rabelais is well
known as a commentator on the effects of nationalism, race, imperialism,
monarchies, and a critic of global capitalism (he was a strong opponent to the
concept of a society built on credit). He was an advocate of freedom, virtue,
and the power of education. He also had at his disposal a wealth of books, made
possible by the printing press. These books inspired him, like many humanists,
to preach for well-rounded education in classics and humanities. The following
passage from his Tales of Gargantua and Pantagruel even gives credit to
the possibilities realized because of the invention and wide scale use of the
printing press.
"Now every
method of teaching has been restored, and the study of languages has been
revived: of Greek, without which it is disgraceful for a man to call himself a
scholar, and of Hebrew, and Latin. The elegant and accurate art of printing,
which is now in use, was invented in my time, by divine inspiration; as, by
contrast, artillery was inspired by diabolical suggestion. The whole world is
full of learned men, of very erudite tutors, and of most extensive libraries,
and it is my opinion that neither in the time of Plato, of Cicero, nor of
Papinian were there such faculties for study as one finds today. No one, in
future, will risk appearing in public or in any company, who is not well
polished in Minerva's workshop. I find robbers, hangmen, freebooters, and
grooms nowadays more learned than the doctors and preachers were in my time."[18]
Of these
books Rabelais himself writes "more copies of it have been sold by the printers
in two months than there will be of the Bible in nine years"[19]
And other sources have said that it sold more copies in one day at the Lyons
book fair than the Bible in nine years.[20]
While it is beyond the scope of this paper to find out how many copies of
Rabelais work were in circulation in the 1500's, the number is certainly large.
By the early 17th century it was printed in Holland and England, and
early translations were available in Dutch, German, and English.[21]
There can be no doubt that Rabelais' perspectives on culture, commodity, trade,
religion and knowledge were pervasive throughout late renaissance and early
parts enlightenment. His work influenced centuries of writers.
At one
point in time there was a class of elite scholars who owned and read all or
nearly all the books available. These people were the sole bearers of
knowledge, even in an increasingly secularized knowledge base. But as books
began to further secularize, and develop categories of information and literary
genres, the number of books outnumbered people's ability to read them all, and
specialization ensued. This specialization brought about the need for not just
book dealers, but book dealers with specialized knowledge and specialized
shops. Additionally, book dealers had to know, or predict, which categories,
which topics of information, would be most useful or fashionable, in order to
sell their share. So just as Eisenstein stated that the printed word made
things more permanent and Plato feared the stagnation of writing, the printed
word also reflected societies values and created desire for new values. In a
way, books and more specifically newspapers, became a harbinger of fashion and
changing taste, and trade of books became a speculative process – forward
looking, as is the nature of capitalism. Additionally, desire for books meant
desire for authors, and different authors writing on different subjects
expanded readership. An industry was born.
This
industry further aided the sustainability of a capitalist system by promoting
the ideas, on a mass scale, that it needed to survive. The first institution to
depend on mass produced books were universities. Universities built up
libraries and presses, at first to accumulate knowledge in the form of classic
texts, encyclopedias and dictionaries, and then to spread more specialized
ideas about democracy and nationalism, geography, and politics. With religion
out of the way, values of the individual high, and knowledge a prime commodity,
destruction of the merchant class and mercantilism was inevitable via the
empowerment of people in terms of business, economics, and politics.
In the 17th
century printing became affordable and distribution streamlined. The state set
up laws concerning trade as well as those of copyright and ownership to ensure
publishers economic stability (and also create value in the name of
individuals). While at first the state was set up by the merchants to protect
property and autonomy, it then became the role of the state to protect the
economy, since it affected nearly everyone dependent on money for food and
shelter, hardly a concern in feudal times. Books from this time were of such a
varied nature that universities developed specialized programs to accommodate
the large volume of information available to most people.
Key ideas
of the pre-enlightenment which further secured capitalism as the dominant
system for culture and economics are found in John Locke's Further
Considerations Concerning Raising the Value of Money (1668), the Charter
of the Dutch West India Company (1621), and Thomas Mun's England's
Treasure by Foreign Trade (1664). There are also accounts from the
mid-1600s on the social conditions of France, which speak about military
brutality and poverty among not just the peasants, but working people as well.
In Locke's
Further Considerations he proposes that silver be a set universal
standard, not just in towns but also throughout kingdoms. He further states
that it is better to mix silver with copper to increase its strength and
recommends each coin be stamped by the public authority, verifying that it is
in fact a consistent value, regardless of indiscretions in the mixture of
silver and copper. In this work Locke introduces his concept of symbolic money
transferable across regions in exchange for goods. By writing and then
publishing this document, he also fosters a sense of trust and security. People
have security in the economic system, not just because of the stamp placed upon
the coin, but also because of open knowledge about why the stamp is there.
Money is not valuable because of the stamp, money is valuable because people
understand what the stamp means.[22]
In an oral culture, while it may be possible to spread the message of the value
of money verbally, it is much more effective to spread this message
consistently and clearly via a single document, mass-produced that everyone can
reference.
Similarly,
the Charter for the Dutch West India Company holds layered meanings
because it is in print. On one hand it spreads ideas about regulated trade and
the importance of treaties and alliances to streamline trade.
"Be it known, that we knowing the prosperity of these
countries, and the welfare of their inhabitants depends principally on
navigation and trade, which in all former times by the said Countries were
carried on happily, and with a great blessing to all countries and kingdoms;
and desiring that the aforesaid inhabitants should not only be preserved in
their former navigation, traffic, and trade, but also that their trade may be
increased as much as possible in special conformity to the treaties, alliances,
leagues and covenants for traffic and navigation formerly made with other
princes, republics and people, which we give them to understand must be in. all
parts punctually kept and adhered to"[23]
That
same document, because it is in print, serves as a model for others to run
businesses. It documents an example of how to set treaties and write contracts.
"That,
moreover, the aforesaid Company may, in our name and authority, within the
limits herein before prescribed, make contracts, engagements and alliances with
the limits herein before prescribed, make contracts, engagements and alliances
with the princes and natives of the countries comprehended therein, and also
build any forts and fortifications there, to appoint and discharge Governors,
people for war, and officers of justice, and other public officers, for the
preservation of the places, keeping good order, police and justice, and in like
manner for the promoting of trade; and again, others in their place to put, as
they from the situation of their affairs shall see fit: Moreover, they must
advance the peopling of those fruitful and unsettled parts, and do all that the
service of those countries, and the profit and increase of trade shall require:
and the Company shall successively communicate and transmit to us such
contracts and alliances as they shall have made with the aforesaid princes and
nations; and likewise the situation of the fortresses, fortifications, and
settlements by them taken."[24]
The
charter sets limits for the role of government to both promote trade and
communicate clearly within its own and interdependent governments the rules for
engagement. It defines titles and duties, reasons for military use, and the
relationship between the government and the company. It both spreads the ideas
of how capital grows and sets an example for others to follow.
Thomas
Mun, normally associated with Mercantilism, also spread ideas for a developing
capitalism, in his England's Treasure by Foreign Trade. Mun was a
director of the British East India Company, and like the Dutch West Charter
stresses both the qualities of what makes trade work and also sets an example
for others because the document was printed and in circulation. Mun
additionally adds to desire for specialized knowledge by citing all the things
a good tradesman needs to know and practically sets a university curriculum. He
cites arithmetic, penmanship, measures, weights, and monies of foreign
countries, as subjects the good tradesman should know. Additionally, he needs
to know geography, customs and cultures of the places he visits, knowledge of
materials, speak multiple languages.He continues, "[l]astly,
although there be no necessity that such a Merchant should be a great Scholar;
yet is it (at least) required, that in his youth he learn the Latin tongue,
which will the better enable him in all the rest of his endeavors."[25]
By encouraging this breadth of knowledge and also encouraging more people to
trade he is unwittingly contributing to the destruction of mercantilism, while
being a mercantilist himself.
While
Locke, The Dutch West Company, and Mun helped define rules for business,
newspapers and novels were busy setting standards for living, fashion and
taste, which promoted competition and probably fueled desire for luxury items.
It was easy to see by reading a newspaper not just how an individual citizen
compared to his neighbors, but also how states compared with other states and
countries. Accounts of festivals and
aristocratic parties featured elaborate descriptions of clothes and furniture,
which no doubt created competition within the aristocracy for role of authority
on fashion, but likely competition and desire outside the aristocracy for
trendy items. Similarly, people could see how other cities and countries
treated citizens, doubtlessly impacting politics. While it's true that this
information would spread through oral communication regardless of newspapers,
printing allowed greater numbers of people over greater distances to see what
others were up to.
In
the 18th century Goethe, Kant, Herder, Mill and Malthus were
publishing thousands of copies of their works in literature, philosophy,
politics, and economics. And by the 19th century printing itself specialized,
separating design from production. A German printer, Koenig, figured out how to
use the steam engine to power the press and was able to print 400 pages per
hour in 1804. The London Times asked Koenig to invent a double press and by
1827 the paper was printing 4,000 sheets per hour on both sides. In 1886 Ottmar
Mergenthaller perfected a linotype machine that could do the work of seven to
eight hand compositors. "As a result, many compositors lost their jobs. Strikes
and violence loomed over many shops. In the end, however, the linotype created
thousands of new jobs. The new machine caused an explosion of graphic material.
The number of pages in newspapers, for example, rose and circulation soared.
Book publishing, also expanded, with fiction, biographies, technical books, and
histories joining the educational texts and literary classics being published."[26]
The printing industry is a great example of technology that both reduces
existing workforces and creates new ones. Faster production meant more books
for more readers and more demand for workers to run the growing number of
presses, however specialized their jobs would become.
Some
today see the Internet as a threat to the book industry. People now have the
ability to not just self-publish, but also to distribute to millions, for the
small price of Internet access. Publishers are spending millions of dollars on
consultants to re-organize the publishing industry and litigate copy write laws
to protect their investment. Some philosophers argue that the Internet and more
specifically hypertext are returning us to a hybrid textual and oral culture,
stating that hypertext destroys former concepts of form in literature.
Publishing houses are replacing printing factories with online strategies that
both remove existing workers and create new types of work supporting the
computer industry via purchase of hardware, software, and knowledge workers.
The Internet affects not just publishers, but universities and libraries as
well. A recent example is our own library at The New School, which is currently
surveying students and professors about their desire for online texts and
journal subscriptions – a cost cutting measure with (potentially) greater
efficiency. Will the Internet be able to meet the demand of capitalism to
continue growth by creating enough new work to support the evolving publishing
industry? Will the Internet truly transform society, as did the printed word,
in spreading ideas and building new markets large enough to economically
support billions of people? Will capitalism be able to adapt and transform as
it has in the past?
According
to a report from the UK Department of Trade and Industry the publishing
industry today faces several obstacles including sustainable growth, changes in
customer behavior, and changing concepts of competitiveness. Revenues continued
to grow from 91 to 99. Employment dropped from 173,000 people in 1998 to
164,000 people (a decreased of 1.054%) while wages rose from 3,523,000 to
4,254,000 (an increase of .76%). However, these new workers are adding "more
value" per dollar spent. Raw material costs dropped, but telecom services,
computer products, and marketing increased. Overall capacity is higher globally
than demand, particularly in North America where Internet usage is highest. The
report concludes that publishing companies must adapt now and prepare for
change, investments should be reasonable, not panicked, and print revenues
should be able to carry them through the change for a few more years. [27]
Even
if the publishing industry were to fail and the printing press, such a force in
the development of capitalism, were to become obsolete, it is unlikely that the
Internet alone would cause capitalism to break down, just as the printing press
alone did not enable it. As in the beginning, a number of forces seemed to
almost magically coalesce to form capitalism (near simultaneous and
reverberating changes in technology, trade, wars, ideology, power relations,
etc.) an equal or greater number of chance and prescribed changes would have to
occur for capitalism to fall or evolve into something new.
Understanding
the history of the printing press can help us understand our future. In
addition to being an invention of great impact, the development of the printing
press is a metaphor that speaks to the complexity and the inter-related nature
of dependencies between technology, politics, philosophy and social sciences
within capitalism. Understanding the printing press and the role it played in
the development of capitalism shows us much more than how books impact life. It
also shows us how capitalism sustains itself and grows – how it works.
Braudel,
Fernand. Capitalism and Material Life 1400 – 1800. Trans. Miriam Kochan.
New York: Harper Colophon Books. 1973.
Culture Of
Print: Power and the Uses of Print in Early Modern Europe. Ed.
Roger Chartier. Trans. Lydia G. Cochrane. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
University Press.1987.
Febrve,
Lucien and Henri-Jean Martin. The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing
1450 – 1800. London:Verso Books, 1997.
Nell,
Edward J. Transformational Growth and Effective Demand: Economics After the
Capital Critique, New York: New York University Press. 1992.
Scott,
Daniel T. Technology and Union Survival. New York: Praeger. 1987.
Zweig,
Ferdinand. Economic Ideas: A study of Historical Perspectives. New York:
Prentice Hall. 1950.
[1]Ong, Walter. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Routledge, 1982. 32.
[2] Ong, 37.
[3] Ong, 42.
[4] Ong, 45.
[5] Ong, 46.
[6] Plato. Phaedrus. Trans.
B.Jowitt. September 1999.
<ftp://ftp.archive.org/pub/etext/etext99/phdrs10.txt>
[7] Eisenstein, Elizabeth. The Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1980. 110.
[8] Clement, Richard. "Medieval and Renaissance Book Production: Manuscript Books." ORB: The Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies. 1997. <http://orb.rhodes.edu/encyclop/culture/books/medbook1.html>
[9] Jones, Bruce. "Manuscripts, Books, and Maps: The Printing Press and a Changing World." <http://communication.ucsd.edu/bjones/Books/luther.html> 1997
[10] Kreis, Stephen. "Lecture 4: The Medieval Synthesis and the Discovery of Man: The Renaissance." The History Guide. Lectures on Modern European Intellectual History. 2000. <http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture4a.html>
[11]
Machiavelli, Nicolo. The Prince. Chapter
XXI.
<http://www.classicreader.com/read.php/sid.2/bookid.873/sec.23/>
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[13] Mandeville.
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